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he was trained as an engineer

  • 1 formation

    formation [fɔʀmasjɔ̃]
    feminine noun
       a. ( = développement) formation
       b. ( = apprentissage) training ; ( = stage, cours) training course
       c. ( = groupe) formation
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    +1! Lorsque formation se réfère à une activité professionnelle, il se traduit par training.
    * * *
    fɔʀmasjɔ̃
    1) ( instruction) ( scolaire) education; ( professionnelle) training (en in)

    ‘formation assurée’ — ‘training provided’

    2) ( cours) training course
    3) (de gouvernement, parti, d'équipe) forming
    4) ( apparition) formation
    5) ( ensemble) formation
    6) ( groupe) group
    7) Armée ( détachement) detachment; ( disposition) formation
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    fɔʀmasjɔ̃ nf
    1) (= action, processus) forming
    2) (= éducation) training

    Il a une formation d'ingénieur. — He is a trained engineer.

    3) MUSIQUE group
    4) MILITAIRE, AVIATION formation
    5) GÉOGRAPHIE formation
    6) (politique, syndicale) group
    * * *
    1 ( instruction) ( scolaire) education; ( professionnelle) training (en in); formation militaire military training; il est ingénieur de formation he's an engineer by training; il a reçu une formation d'ingénieur he was trained as an engineer; avoir une formation littéraire to have an arts background; la formation des jeunes/maîtres youth/teacher education; il n'a aucune formation he has no training; en formation [stagiaire, technicien] undergoing training ( après n); ‘formation assurée’ ‘training provided’; quelle est votre formation? what education and training have you had?;
    2 ( cours) training course;
    3 (de gouvernement, parti, d'équipe) forming; il a été chargé de la formation du gouvernement he was asked to form the government; la formation de leur parti a pris deux mois it took two months to form their party;
    4 ( apparition) formation; on observe la formation de rougeurs/d'escarres red blotches/bedsores appear; ils s'interrogent encore sur la formation des planètes they're still wondering how the planets were formed; au moment de la formation des glaciers when the glaciers were (being) formed; ‘trous en formation’ ‘uneven carriageway’;
    5 ( puberté) puberty;
    6 ( ensemble) formation; une formation végétale/granitique a formation of vegetation/of granite; une formation nuageuse a cloud formation;
    7 ( groupe) group; formation politique/musicale/syndicale political/musical/trade union group;
    8 Mil ( détachement) detachment; ( disposition) formation; formation aérienne/de combat/en carré aerial/combat/square formation; formation en ligne Aviat line formation.
    formation en alternance sandwich course; formation continue adult continuing education; formation de mots Ling word-formation; formation permanente = formation continue; formation professionnelle professional training; formation sur le tas on-the-job training.
    [fɔrmasjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [naissance] development, formation, forming
    2. [groupe] group
    a. [classique] orchestra
    b. [moderne] band
    3. ÉDUCATION [apprentissage] training (substantif non comptable)
    [connaissances] cultural background
    elle a une bonne formation littéraire/scientifique she has a good literary/scientific background
    architecte de formation, elle est devenue cinéaste having trained as an architect, she turned to making films
    4. MILITAIRE [détachement, disposition] formation
    5. DANSE & SPORT formation

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > formation

  • 2 train

    1. transitive verb
    1) ausbilden (in in + Dat.); erziehen [Kind]; abrichten [Hund]; dressieren [Tier]; schulen [Geist, Auge, Ohr]; bilden [Charakter]

    train somebody as a teacher/soldier/engineer — jemanden zum Lehrer/Soldaten/Ingenieur ausbilden

    he/she has been well/badly/fully trained — er/sie besitzt eine gute/schlechte/umfassende Ausbildung

    2) (Sport) trainieren
    3) (teach and accustom)

    train an animal to do something/to something — einem Tier beibringen, etwas zu tun/etwas beibringen

    train oneself to do something — sich dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun

    train a child to do something/to something — ein Kind dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun/zu etwas erziehen

    train somebody to use a machine — jemanden in der Bedienung einer Maschine schulen

    4) (Hort.) ziehen; erziehen (fachspr.)
    5) (aim) richten (on auf + Akk.)
    2. intransitive verb

    he is training as or to be a teacher/doctor/engineer — er macht eine Lehrer- / Arzt- / Ingenieursausbildung

    2) (Sport) trainieren
    3. noun
    1) (Railw.) Zug, der

    go or travel by train — mit dem Zug od. der Bahn fahren

    on the train — im Zug

    2) (of skirt etc.) Schleppe, die
    3)

    train of thought — Gedankengang, der

    * * *
    I [trein] noun
    1) (a railway engine with its carriages and/or trucks: I caught the train to London.) der Zug
    2) (a part of a long dress or robe that trails behind the wearer: The bride wore a dress with a train.) die Schleppe
    3) (a connected series: Then began a train of events which ended in disaster.) die Reihe
    4) (a line of animals carrying people or baggage: a mule train; a baggage train.) die Kolonne
    II [trein] verb
    1) (to prepare, be prepared, or prepare oneself, through instruction, practice, exercise etc, for a sport, job, profession etc: I was trained as a teacher; The race-horse was trained by my uncle.) ausbilden
    2) (to point or aim (a gun, telescope etc) in a particular direction: He trained the gun on/at the soldiers.) richten
    3) (to make (a tree, plant etc) grow in a particular direction.) ziehen
    •
    - academic.ru/76089/trained">trained
    - trainee
    - trainer
    - training
    * * *
    [treɪn]
    I. n
    1. RAIL Zug m
    ▪ to be on a \train in einem Zug sitzen
    to board a \train in einen Zug einsteigen
    to change \trains umsteigen
    to miss/take [or catch] a \train einen Zug verpassen/nehmen
    2. (series) Serie f
    ▪ to be in \train im Gange sein
    a \train of events eine Kette von Ereignissen
    \train of thought Gedankengang m
    to put [or set] sth in \train etw in Gang setzen
    3. (retinue) Gefolge nt kein pl; (procession) Zug m
    an elephant/camel \train ein Elefanten-/Kamelzug
    a \train of barges ein Schleppzug m
    wagon \train Wagenkolonne f
    to bring sth in its/one's \train ( fig) etw nach sich dat ziehen
    4. (part of dress) Schleppe f
    \train schedule Fahrplan m
    \train driver Lokführer(in) m(f)
    III. vi
    1. (learn)
    ▪ to \train for sth für etw akk trainieren
    she \trained as a pilot sie machte eine Pilotenausbildung
    to \train to London/New York mit dem Zug nach London/New York fahren
    IV. vt
    ▪ to \train sb [in sth] jdn [in etw dat] ausbilden
    ▪ to \train oneself to do sth sich dat [selbst] beibringen, etw zu tun
    ▪ to \train sb for [or to do] sth jdn für etw akk ausbilden; ( hum)
    you must \train your husband to do housework! du musst deinen Mann zur Hausarbeit erziehen!
    to \train children to be polite Kinder zur Höflichkeit erziehen
    to \train dogs Hunde abrichten
    to \train lions/tigers/elephants Löwen/Tiger/Elefanten dressieren
    to \train one's mind seinen Verstand schulen
    2. HORT
    to \train roses/grape vines Rosen/Weintrauben ziehen
    3. (point at)
    to \train a gun/light/telescope on [or upon] sb/sth eine Waffe/ein Licht/Teleskop auf jdn/etw richten
    * * *
    I [treɪn]
    n
    1) (RAIL) Zug m

    to go/travel by train — mit dem Zug or der (Eisen)bahn fahren/reisen

    2) (= line) Kolonne f; (of people) Schlange f; (of camels) Karawane f; (= retinue) Gefolge nt
    3) (of events) Folge f, Kette f
    4) (of dress) Schleppe f
    5)
    II
    1. vt
    1) person ausbilden; staff weiterbilden; child erziehen; animal abrichten, dressieren; mind schulen; (SPORT) trainieren

    to train sb as sth — jdn als or zu etw ausbilden

    to train oneself to do sth —

    to train an animal to do sth — ein Tier dazu abrichten, etw zu tun

    a lion trained to do tricks — ein dressierter Löwe, der Kunststücke macht

    she has her husband well trained (hum) — sie hat ihren Mann gut dressiert (hum)

    2) (= aim) gun, telescope richten (on auf +acc)
    3) plant wachsen lassen (over über +acc)

    she trained her roses along/up the trellis — sie ließ ihre Rosen am Gitter entlang-/hochwachsen

    2. vi
    1) (ESP SPORT) trainieren ( for für)

    let's go train (Brit) — komm, wir gehen trainieren

    2) (= study) ausgebildet werden

    he trained as a teacher —

    where did you train? — wo haben Sie Ihre Ausbildung erhalten?, wo sind Sie ausgebildet worden?

    * * *
    train [treın]
    A s
    1. BAHN (Eisenbahn)Zug m:
    go by train mit dem Zug oder der Bahn fahren;
    be on the train im Zug sein oder sitzen, mitfahren;
    take a train to mit dem Zug fahren nach
    2. Zug m (von Personen, Wagen etc), Kette f, Kolonne f:
    3. Gefolge n (auch fig):
    have ( oder bring) in its train fig zur Folge haben, mit sich bringen
    4. fig Reihe f, Folge f, Kette f (von Ereignissen etc):
    train of thought Gedankengang m;
    a) im Gang(e),
    b) bereit ( for für);
    put in train in Gang setzen
    5. MIL besonders HIST Train m, Tross m
    6. MIL, auch Bergbau: Leitfeuer n, Zündlinie f
    7. TECH
    a) Walzwerk n
    b) auch train of wheels Trieb-, Räderwerk n
    8. Schleppe f (am Kleid)
    9. ASTRON (Kometen)Schweif m
    10. PHYS Reihe f, Serie f:
    train of impulses Stromstoßreihe, -serie;
    train of waves Wellenzug m
    11. CHEM Gerätesatz m
    B v/t
    1. jemanden er-, aufziehen
    2. BOT
    a) ( besonders am Spalier) ziehen
    b) wachsen lassen
    3. jemanden ausbilden ( auch MIL), auch das Auge, den Geist schulen: → trained
    4. jemandem etwas einexerzieren, beibringen
    5. SPORT einen Läufer, ein Pferd etc trainieren
    6. a) Tiere abrichten, dressieren ( to do zu tun)
    b) Pferde zureiten
    7. ein Geschütz etc richten (on auf akk)
    C v/i
    1. sich ausbilden ( for zu, als), sich schulen oder üben:
    where did you train? wo wurden Sie ausgebildet?;
    she’s training to be a make-up artist sie macht eine Ausbildung als Maskenbildnerin
    2. SPORT trainieren ( for für)
    3. mit dem Zug oder der Bahn fahren
    tn abk
    2. town
    3. ton t
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) ausbilden (in in + Dat.); erziehen [Kind]; abrichten [Hund]; dressieren [Tier]; schulen [Geist, Auge, Ohr]; bilden [Charakter]

    train somebody as a teacher/soldier/engineer — jemanden zum Lehrer/Soldaten/Ingenieur ausbilden

    he/she has been well/badly/fully trained — er/sie besitzt eine gute/schlechte/umfassende Ausbildung

    2) (Sport) trainieren

    train an animal to do something/to something — einem Tier beibringen, etwas zu tun/etwas beibringen

    train oneself to do something — sich dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun

    train a child to do something/to something — ein Kind dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun/zu etwas erziehen

    4) (Hort.) ziehen; erziehen (fachspr.)
    5) (aim) richten (on auf + Akk.)
    2. intransitive verb

    he is training as or to be a teacher/doctor/engineer — er macht eine Lehrer- / Arzt- / Ingenieursausbildung

    2) (Sport) trainieren
    3. noun
    1) (Railw.) Zug, der

    go or travel by train — mit dem Zug od. der Bahn fahren

    2) (of skirt etc.) Schleppe, die
    3)

    train of thought — Gedankengang, der

    * * *
    (animals) v.
    dressieren v. v.
    anlernen v.
    trainieren v. n.
    Eisenbahn f.
    Zug ¨-e m.

    English-german dictionary > train

  • 3 train

    I 1. [treɪn]
    1) ferr. treno m.; convoglio m. ferroviario

    on o in the train sul o in treno; slow train treno locale; a train to Paris un treno per Parigi; to take o catch, miss the train prendere, perdere il treno; to go by train — andare in treno o con il treno

    2) (succession) (of events) serie f., sequela f.
    3) (procession) (of animals) fila f., processione f.; (of vehicles) convoglio m., colonna f.; (of people) corteo m., seguito m.; (of mourners) corteo m. (funebre); mil. corteo m. (militare)

    to set o put sth. in train — mettere in movimento qcs

    5) ant. (retinue) seguito m.

    the war brought famine in its train — fig. la guerra portò con sé la carestia

    6) (on dress) strascico m.
    2.
    modificatore ferr. [crash, station] ferroviario; [ timetable] dei treni; [ ticket] del treno, ferroviario; [ strike] dei treni
    II 1. [treɪn]
    1) preparare, formare [staff, worker, musician]; (physically) allenare [athlete, player]; ammaestrare, addestrare [circus animal, dog]

    to train sb. as a pilot, engineer — preparare qcn. a diventare pilota, ingegnere

    2) (aim) puntare [gun, binoculars]
    3) (guide the growth of) palizzare [plant, tree]
    2.
    1) (for profession) prepararsi, formarsi
    2) sport allenarsi, esercitarsi
    * * *
    I [trein] noun
    1) (a railway engine with its carriages and/or trucks: I caught the train to London.)
    2) (a part of a long dress or robe that trails behind the wearer: The bride wore a dress with a train.)
    3) (a connected series: Then began a train of events which ended in disaster.)
    4) (a line of animals carrying people or baggage: a mule train; a baggage train.)
    II [trein] verb
    1) (to prepare, be prepared, or prepare oneself, through instruction, practice, exercise etc, for a sport, job, profession etc: I was trained as a teacher; The race-horse was trained by my uncle.)
    2) (to point or aim (a gun, telescope etc) in a particular direction: He trained the gun on/at the soldiers.)
    3) (to make (a tree, plant etc) grow in a particular direction.)
    •
    - trainee
    - trainer
    - training
    * * *
    I 1. [treɪn]
    1) ferr. treno m.; convoglio m. ferroviario

    on o in the train sul o in treno; slow train treno locale; a train to Paris un treno per Parigi; to take o catch, miss the train prendere, perdere il treno; to go by train — andare in treno o con il treno

    2) (succession) (of events) serie f., sequela f.
    3) (procession) (of animals) fila f., processione f.; (of vehicles) convoglio m., colonna f.; (of people) corteo m., seguito m.; (of mourners) corteo m. (funebre); mil. corteo m. (militare)

    to set o put sth. in train — mettere in movimento qcs

    5) ant. (retinue) seguito m.

    the war brought famine in its train — fig. la guerra portò con sé la carestia

    6) (on dress) strascico m.
    2.
    modificatore ferr. [crash, station] ferroviario; [ timetable] dei treni; [ ticket] del treno, ferroviario; [ strike] dei treni
    II 1. [treɪn]
    1) preparare, formare [staff, worker, musician]; (physically) allenare [athlete, player]; ammaestrare, addestrare [circus animal, dog]

    to train sb. as a pilot, engineer — preparare qcn. a diventare pilota, ingegnere

    2) (aim) puntare [gun, binoculars]
    3) (guide the growth of) palizzare [plant, tree]
    2.
    1) (for profession) prepararsi, formarsi
    2) sport allenarsi, esercitarsi

    English-Italian dictionary > train

  • 4 Barsanti, Eugenio

    [br]
    b. 1821 Italy
    d. 1864 Liège, Belgium
    [br]
    Italian co-inventor of the internal combustion engine; lecturer in mechanics and hydraulics.
    [br]
    A trained scientist and engineer, Barsanti became acquainted with a distinguished engineer, Felice Matteucci, in 1851. Their combined talents enabled them to produce a number of so-called free-piston atmospheric engines from 1854 onwards. Using a principle demonstrated by the Swiss engineer Isaac de Rivaz in 1827, the troublesome explosive shocks encountered by other pioneers were avoided. A piston attached to a long toothed rack was propelled from beneath by the expansion of burning gas and allowed unrestricted movement. A resulting partial vacuum enabled atmospheric pressure to return the piston and produce the working stroke. Electric ignition was a feature of all the Italian engines.
    With many successful applications, a company was formed in 1860. A 20 hp (15 kW) engine stimulated much interest. Attempts by John Cockerill of Belgium to mass-produce small power units of up to 4 hp (3 kW) came to an abrupt end; during the negotiations Barsanti contracted typhoid fever and later died. The project was abandoned, but the working principle of the Italian engine was used successfully in the Otto-Langen engine of 1867.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    13 May 1854, British Provisional Patent no. 1,072 (the Barsanti and Matteucci engine).
    12 June 1857, British patent no. 1,655 (contained many notable improvements to the design).
    Further Reading
    The Engineer (1858) 5:73–4 (for an account of the Italian engine).
    Vincenzo Vannacci, 1955, L'invenzione del motore a scoppio realizzota dai toscani Barsanti e Matteucci 1854–1954, Florence.
    KAB

    Biographical history of technology > Barsanti, Eugenio

  • 5 train

    A n
    1 Rail train m ; ( underground) rame f ; on ou in the train dans le train ; fast/slow train train m rapide/omnibus ; the London/Paris train le train de Londres/Paris ; a train to London/Paris un train pour Londres/Paris ; the morning/5 o'clock train le train du matin/de 5 heures ; an up/down train GB ( in commuter belt) un train à destination de/en provenance de Londres ; to take/catch/miss the train prendre/attraper/manquer le train ; to send sth by train ou on the train expédier qch par le train ; to go to Paris by train aller à Paris en train ; it's five hours by train to Geneva Genève est à cinq heures de train ; the train now standing at platform 6 le train au quai numéro 6 ; the train is running late le train a du retard ;
    2 ( succession) ( of events) série f ; ( of ideas) enchaînement m ; to set off a train of events déclencher une série d'événements ; a train of thought un raisonnement ; the bell interrupted my/John's train of thought la sonnette a interrompu le fil de mes pensées/a distrait John de ses pensées ;
    3 ( procession) gen (of animals, vehicles, people) file f ; ( of mourners) cortège m ; Mil train m ;
    4 ( of gunpowder) traînée f (de poudre) ;
    5 ( motion) to be in train être en train or en marche ; to set ou put sth in train mettre qch en train ;
    6 †( retinue) suite f ; the war brought famine in its train fig la guerre a entraîné la famine dans son sillage ;
    7 ( on dress) traîne f ;
    8 Tech a train of gears un train d'engrenages.
    B modif Rail [crash, service, station] ferroviaire ; [times, timetable] des trains ; [driver, ticket] de train ; [traveller] en train ; [strike] des chemins de fer.
    C vtr
    1 gen, Mil, Sport ( instruct professionally) former [staff, worker, musician] (to do à faire) ; ( instruct physically) entraîner [athlete, player] (to do à faire) ; dresser [circus animal, dog] ; these men are trained to kill ces hommes sont entraînés à tuer ; to be trained on the job être formé sur le tas ; to train sb for/in sth former qn pour qch ; she is being trained for the Olympics/in sales techniques on la forme pour les jeux Olympiques/aux techniques commerciales ; to train sb as a pilot/engineer donner à qn une formation de pilote/d'ingénieur ; she was trained as a linguist elle a reçu une formation de linguiste ; a Harvard-trained economist un économiste formé à Harvard ; an Irish-trained horse un cheval entraîné en Irlande ; he's training his dog to sit up and beg il apprend à son chien à faire le beau ; she has her husband well-trained hum elle a bien dressé son mari ;
    2 (aim, focus) to train X on Y pointer or braquer X sur Y ; she trained the gun/binoculars on him elle a braqué le fusil/les jumelles sur lui ; the firemen trained the hose on the fire les pompiers ont dirigé le tuyau sur les flammes ;
    3 Hort palisser [plant, tree].
    D vi
    1 gen ( for profession) être formé, étudier ; he trained at the Language Institute il a été formé or il a étudié à l'Institut des Langues ; he's training for the ministry il étudie pour être pasteur ; I trained on a different type of machine j'ai été formé sur un autre type de machine ; he's training to be/he trained as a doctor il suit/il a reçu une formation de docteur ;
    2 Sport s'entraîner (for pour) ; I train by running 15 km je m'entraîne en courant 15 km.
    ■ train up ○:
    ▶ train up [sb], train [sb] up former [employee, staff, soldier] ; entraîner [athlete].

    Big English-French dictionary > train

  • 6 Wöhler, August

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 22 June 1819 Soltau, Germany
    d. 21 June 1914 Hannover, Germany
    [br]
    German railway engineer who first established the fatigue fracture of metals.
    [br]
    Wöhler, the son of a schoolteacher, was born at Soltau on the Luneburg Heath and received his early education at his father's school, where his mathematical abilities soon became apparent. He completed his studies at the Technical High School, Hannover.
    In 1840 he obtained a position at the Borsig Engineering Works in Berlin and acquired there much valuable experience in railway technology. He trained as an engine driver in Belgium and in 1843 was appointed as an engineer to the first Hannoverian Railway, then being constructed between Hannover and Lehrte. In 1847 he became Chief Superintendent of rolling stock on the Lower Silesian-Brandenhurg Railway, where his technical abilities influenced the Prussian Minister of Commerce to appoint him to a commission set up to investigate the reasons for the unusually high incidence of axle failures then being encountered on the railways. This was in 1852, and by 1854, when the Brandenburg line had been nationalized, Wöhler had already embarked on the long, systematic programme of mechanical testing which eventually provided him with a clear insight into the process of what is now referred to as "fatigue failure". He concentrated initially on the behaviour of machined iron and steel specimens subjected to fluctuating direct, bending and torsional stresses that were imposed by testing machines of his own design.
    Although Wöhler was not the first investigator in this area, he was the first to recognize the state of "fatigue" induced in metals by the repeated application of cycles of stress at levels well below those that would cause immediate failure. His method of plotting the fatigue stress amplitude "S" against the number of stress cycles necessary to cause failure "N" yielded the well-known S-N curve which described very precisely the susceptibility to fatigue failure of the material concerned. Engineers were thus provided with an invaluable testing technique that is still widely used in the 1990s.
    Between 1851 and 1898 Wöhler published forty-two papers in German technical journals, although the importance of his work was not initially fully appreciated in other countries. A display of some of his fracture fatigue specimens at the Paris Exposition in 1867, however, stimulated a short review of his work in Engineering in London. Four years later, in 1871, Engineering published a series of nine articles which described Wöhler's findings in considerable detail and brought them to the attention of engineers. Wöhler became a member of the newly created management board of the Imperial German Railways in 1874, an appointment that he retained until 1889. He is also remembered for his derivation in 1855 of a formula for calculating the deflections under load of lattice girders, plate girders, and other continuous beams resting on more than two supports. This "Three Moments" theorem appeared two years before Clapeyron independently advanced the same expression. Wöhler's other major contribution to bridge design was to use rollers at one end to allow for thermal expansion and contraction.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1855, "Theorie rechteckiger eiserner Brückenbalken", Zeitschrift für Bauwesen 5:122–66. 1870, "Über die Festigkeitversuche mit Eisen und Stahl", Zeitschrift für Bauwesen 20:73– 106.
    Wöhler's experiments on the fatigue of metals were reported in Engineering (1867) 2:160; (1871) 11:199–200, 222, 243–4, 261, 299–300, 326–7, 349–50, 397, 439–41.
    Further Reading
    R.Blaum, 1918, "August Wöhler", Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technik und Industrie 8:35–55.
    ——1925, "August Wöhler", Deutsches biographisches Jahrbuch, Vol. I, Stuttgart, pp. 103–7.
    K.Pearson, 1890, "On Wöhler's experiments on alternating stress", Messeng. Math.
    20:21–37.
    J.Gilchrist, 1900, "On Wöhler's Laws", Engineer 90:203–4.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Wöhler, August

  • 7 Kennedy, Sir Alexander Blackie William

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 17 March 1847 Stepney, London, England d. 1928
    [br]
    English marine engineer and educator.
    [br]
    Sir Alexander Kennedy was trained as a marine engineer. The son of a Congregational minister, he was educated at the City of London School and the School of Mines, Jermyn Street. He was then apprenticed to J. \& W.Dudgeon of Millwall, marine engineers, and went on to become a draughtsman to Sir Charles Marsh Palmer of Jarrow (with whom he took part in the development of the compound steam-engine for marine use) and T.M.Tennant \& Co. of Leith. In 1874 he was appointed Professor of Engineering at University College, London. He built up an influential School of Engineering, being the first in England to integrate laboratory work as a regular feature of instruction. The engineering laboratory that he established in 1878 has been described as "the first of its kind in England" (Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers). He and his students conducted important experiments on the strength and elasticity of materials, boiler testing and related subjects. He followed the teaching of Franz Reuleaux, whose Kinematics of Machinery he translated from the German.
    While thus breaking new educational ground at University College, Kennedy concurrently established a very thriving private practice as a consulting engineer in partnership with Bernard Maxwell Jenkin (the son of Fleeming Jenkin), to pursue which he relinquished his academic posts in 1889. He planned and installed the whole electricity system for the Westminster Electric Supply Corporation, and other electricity companies. He was also heavily involved in the development of electrically powered transport systems. During the First World War he served on a panel of the Munitions Invention Department, and after the war he undertook to record photographically the scenes of desolation in his book From Ypres to Verdun (1921). Towards the end of his life, he pursued his interest in archaeology with the exploration of Petra, recorded in a monograph: Petra. Its History and Monuments (1925). He also joined the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1879, becoming the President of that body in 1894, and he joined the Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1890. Kennedy was thus something of an engineering polymath, as well as being an outstanding engineering educationalist.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1887. Knighted 1905. Member, Institution of Civil Engineers 1879; President, 1906. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1894.
    Bibliography
    1921, From Ypresto Verdum.
    1925, Petra. Its History and Monuments.
    Further Reading
    DNB supplement.
    AB

    Biographical history of technology > Kennedy, Sir Alexander Blackie William

  • 8 Behr, Fritz Bernhard

    [br]
    b. 9 October 1842 Berlin, Germany
    d. 25 February 1927
    [br]
    German (naturalized British in 1876) engineer, promoter of the Lartigue monorail system.
    [br]
    Behr trained as an engineer in Britain and had several railway engineering appointments before becoming associated with C.F.M.-T. Lartigue in promoting the Lartigue monorail system in the British Isles. In Lartigue's system, a single rail was supported on trestles; vehicles ran on the rail, their bodies suspended pannier-fashion, stabilized by horizontal rollers running against light guide rails fixed to the sides of the trestles. Behr became Managing Director of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which in 1888 opened its Lartigue system line between those two places in the south-west of Ireland. Three locomotives designed by J.T.A. Mallet were built for the line by Hunslet Engine Company, each with two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. Coaches and wagons likewise were in two parts. Technically the railway was successful, but lack of traffic caused the company to go bankrupt in 1897: the railway continued to operate until 1924.
    Meanwhile Behr had been thinking in terms far more ambitious than a country branch line. Railway speeds of 150mph (240km/h) or more then lay far in the future: engineers were uncertain whether normal railway vehicles would even be stable at such speeds. Behr was convinced that a high-speed electric vehicle on a substantial Lartigue monorail track would be stable. In 1897 he demonstrated such a vehicle on a 3mile (4.8km) test track at the Brussels International Exhibition. By keeping the weight of the motors low, he was able to place the seats above rail level. Although the generating station provided by the Exhibition authorities never operated at full power, speeds over 75mph (120 km/h) were achieved.
    Behr then promoted the Manchester-Liverpool Express Railway, on which monorail trains of this type running at speeds up to 110mph (177km/h) were to link the two cities in twenty minutes. Despite strong opposition from established railway companies, an Act of Parliament authorizing it was made in 1901. The Act also contained provision for the Board of Trade to require experiments to prove the system's safety. In practice this meant that seven miles of line, and a complete generating station to enable trains to travel at full speed, must be built before it was known whether the Board would give its approval for the railway or not. Such a condition was too severe for the scheme to attract investors and it remained stillborn.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    H.Fayle, 1946, The Narrow Gauge Railways of Ireland, Greenlake Publications, Part 2, ch. 2 (describes the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway and Behr's work there).
    D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions of
    the Newcomen Society 55 (covers mainly the high speed lines).
    See also: Brennan, Louis
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Behr, Fritz Bernhard

  • 9 Guterres, António Manuel de

    (1949-)
       Socialist Party leader, engineer, and politician, prime minister of Portugal (19952002). Born in Lisbon in a lower-middle-class family with roots in Beira Alta district (central Portugal), Guterres was trained as an electrical engineer and physicist. In his twenties, he abandoned academic pursuits to enter politics and was active in the university Catholic youth movement. Following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Guterres became active in the Socialist Party (PS) leadership and joined several administrations' ministries during provisional governments (1974-75). From 1976 to 1983, he was an elected deputy for the Assembly of the Republic and was reelected to the same body as a deputy in 1985, serving until 1988. In the late 1980s, he reached the top rungs of the PS leadership. He directed the PS's electoral campaign of 1987. When the PS defeated the Social Democratic Party (PSD) in both the general legislative elections of 1995 and 1999, Guterres was named and served as prime minister.
       Following the PSD's defeat of the PS in the December 2001 municipal elections, Guterres unexpectedly resigned as chief of the PS and became a caretaker prime minister as President Jorge Sampaio called for parliamentary elections in March 2002. Guterres was replaced as PS leader and candidate for prime minister by Ferro Rodrigues. In the 17 March 2002 elections, the PSD defeated the PS, but only by a slim margin. Guterres left the premiership and withdrew from active politics.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Guterres, António Manuel de

  • 10 Pihl, Carl Abraham

    [br]
    b. 16 January 1825 Stavanger, Norway
    d. 14 September 1897 Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway
    [br]
    Norwegian railway engineer, protagonist of narrow-gauge railways.
    [br]
    Pihl trained as an engineer at Göteborg, Sweden, and then moved to London, where he worked under Robert Stephenson during 1845 and 1846. In 1850 he returned to Norway and worked with the English contractors building the first railway in Norway, the Norwegian Trunk Railway from Kristiania to Eidsvold, for which the English standard gauge was used. Subsequently he worked in England for a year, but in 1856 joined the Norwegian government's Road Department, which was to have responsibility for railways. In 1865 a distinct Railway Department was set up, and Pihl became Director for State Railway Construction. Because of the difficulties of the terrain and limited traffic, Pihl recommended that in the case of two isolated lines to be built the outlay involved in ordinary railways would not be justified, and that they should be built to the narrow gauge of 3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m). His recommendation was accepted by the Government in 1857 and the two lines were built to this gauge and opened during 1861–4. Six of their seven locomotives, and all their rolling stock, were imported from Britain. The lines cost £3,000 and £5,000 per mile, respectively; a standard-gauge line built in the same period cost £6,400 per mile.
    Subsequently, many hundreds of miles of Norwegian railways were built to 3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m) gauge under Pihl's direction. They influenced construction of railways to this gauge in Australia, Southern Africa, New Zealand, Japan and elsewhere. However, in the late 1870s controversy arose in Norway over the economies that could in fact be gained from the 3 ft 6 in. (1,07 m) gauge. This controversy in the press, in discussion and in the Norwegian parliament became increasingly acrimonious during the next two decades; the standard-gauge party may be said to have won with the decision in 1898, the year after Pihl's death, to build the Bergen-Oslo line to standard gauge.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knight of the Order of St Olaf 1862; Commander of the Order of St Olaf 1877. Commander of the Royal Order of Vasa 1867. Royal Order of the Northern Star 1882.
    Further Reading
    P.Allen and P.B.Whitehouse, 1959, Narrow Gauge Railways of Europe, Ian Allan (describes the Norwegian Battle of the Gauges).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Pihl, Carl Abraham

  • 11 Junkers, Hugo

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 3 February 1859 Rheydt, Germany
    d. 3 February 1935 Munich, Germany
    [br]
    German aircraft designer, pioneer of all-metal aircraft, including the world's first real airliner.
    [br]
    Hugo Junkers trained as an engineer and in 1895 founded the Junkers Company, which manufactured metal products including gas-powered hot-water heaters. He was also Professor of Thermodynamics at the high school in Aachen. The visits to Europe by the Wright brothers in 1908 and 1909 aroused his interest in flight, and in 1910 he was granted a patent for a flying wing, i.e. no fuselage and a thick wing which did not require external bracing wires. Using his sheet-metal experience he built the more conventional Junkers J 1 entirely of iron and steel. It made its first flight in December 1915 but was rather heavy and slow, so Junkers turned to the newly available aluminium alloys and built the J 4 bi-plane, which entered service in 1917. To stiffen the thin aluminium-alloy skins, Junkers used corrugations running fore and aft, a feature of his aircraft for the next twenty years. Incidentally, in 1917 the German authorities persuaded Junkers and Fokker to merge, but the Junkers-Fokker Company was short-lived.
    After the First World War Junkers very rapidly converted to commercial aviation, and in 1919 he produced a single-engined low-wing monoplane capable of carrying four passengers in an enclosed cabin. The robust all-metal F 13 is generally accepted as being the world's first airliner and over three hundred were built and used worldwide: some were still in service eighteen years later. A series of low-wing transport aircraft followed, of which the best known is the Ju 52. The original version had a single engine and first flew in 1930; a three-engined version flew in 1932 and was known as the Ju 52/3m. This was used by many airlines and served with the Luftwaffe throughout the Second World War, with almost five thousand being built.
    Junkers was always ready to try new ideas, such as a flap set aft of the trailing edge of the wing that became known as the "Junkers flap". In 1923 he founded a company to design and manufacture stationary diesel engines and aircraft petrol engines. Work commenced on a diesel aero-engine: this flew in 1929 and a successful range of engines followed later. Probably the most spectacular of Junkers's designs was his G 38 airliner of 1929. This was the world's largest land-plane at the time, with a wing span of 44 m (144 ft). The wing was so thick that some of the thirty-four passengers could sit in the wing and look out through windows in the leading edge. Two were built and were frequently seen on European routes.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1923, "Metal aircraft construction", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, London.
    Further Reading
    G.Schmitt, 1988, Hugh Junkers and His Aircraft, Berlin.
    1990, Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War I, London: Jane's (provides details of Junkers's aircraft).
    P. St J.Turner and H.J.Nowarra, 1971, Junkers: An Aircraft Album, London.
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Junkers, Hugo

  • 12 Short, Hugh Oswald

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 16 January 1883 Derbyshire, England
    d. 4 December 1969 Haslemere, England
    [br]
    English co-founder, with his brothers Horace Short (1872–1917) and Eustace (1875–1932), of the first company to design and build aeroplanes in Britain.
    [br]
    Oswald Short trained as an engineer; he was largely self-taught but was assisted by his brothers Eustace and Horace. In 1898 Eustace and the young Oswald set up a balloon business, building their first balloon in 1901. Two years later they sold observation balloons to the Government of India, and further orders followed. Meanwhile, in 1906 Horace designed a high-altitude balloon with a spherical pressurized gondola, an idea later used by Auguste Piccard, in 1931. Horace, a strange genius with a dominating character, joined his younger brothers in 1908 to found Short Brothers. Their first design, based on the Wright Flyer, was a limited success, but No. 2 won a Daily Mail prize of £1,000. In the same year, 1909, the Wright brothers chose Shorts to build six of their new Model A biplanes. Still using the basic Wright layout, Horace designed the world's first twin-engined aeroplane to fly successfully: it had one engine forward of the pilot, and one aft. During the years before the First World War the Shorts turned to tractor biplanes and specialized in floatplanes for the Admiralty.
    Oswald established a seaplane factory at Rochester, Kent, during 1913–14, and an airship works at Cardington, Bedfordshire, in 1916. Short Brothers went on to build the rigid airship R 32, which was completed in 1919. Unfortunately, Horace died in 1917, which threw a greater responsibility onto Oswald, who became the main innovator. He introduced the use of aluminium alloys combined with a smooth "stressed-skin" construction (unlike Junkers, who used corrugated skins). His sleek biplane the Silver Streak flew in 1920, well ahead of its time, but official support was not forthcoming. Oswald Short struggled on, trying to introduce his all-metal construction, especially for flying boats. He eventually succeeded with the biplane Singapore, of 1926, which had an all-metal hull. The prototype was used by Sir Alan Cobham for his flight round Africa. Several successful all-metal flying boats followed, including the Empire flying boats (1936) and the ubiquitous Sunderland (1937). The Stirling bomber (1939) was derived from the Sunderland. The company was nationalized in 1942 and Oswald Short retired the following year.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. Freeman of the City of London. Oswald Short turned down an MBE in 1919 as he felt it did not reflect the achievements of the Short Brothers.
    Bibliography
    1966, "Aircraft with stressed skin metal construction", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (November) (an account of the problems with patents and officialdom).
    Further Reading
    C.H.Barnes, 1967, Shorts Aircraft since 1900, London; reprinted 1989 (a detailed account of the work of the Short brothers).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Short, Hugh Oswald

  • 13 Sikorsky, Igor Ivanovich

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 25 May 1889 Kiev, Ukraine
    d. 26 October 1972 Easton, Connecticut, USA
    [br]
    Russian/American pioneer of large aeroplanes, flying boats, and helicopters.
    [br]
    Sikorsky trained as an engineer but developed an interest in aviation at the age of 19 when he was allowed to spend several months in Paris to meet French aviators. He bought an Anzani aero-engine and took it back to Russia, where he designed and built a helicopter. In his own words, "It had one minor technical problem—it would not fly—but otherwise it was a good helicopter".
    Sikorsky turned to aeroplanes and built a series of biplanes: by 1911 the 5–5 was capable of flights lasting an hour. Following this success, the Russian-Baltic Railroad Car Company commissioned Sikorsky to build a large aeroplane. On 13 May 1913 Sikorsky took off in the Grand, the world's first four-engined aeroplane. With a wing span of 28 m (92 ft) it was also the world's largest, and was unique in that the crew were in an enclosed cabin with dual controls. The even larger Ilia Mourometz flew the following year and established many records, including the carriage of sixteen people. During the First World War many of these aircraft were built and served as heavy bombers.
    Following the revolution in Russia during 1917, Sikorsky emigrated first to France and then the United States, where he founded his own company. After building the successful S-38 passenger-carrying amphibian, the Sikorsky Aviation Corporation became part of the United Aircraft Corporation and went on to produce several large flying boats. Of these, the four-engined S-42 was probably the best known, for its service to Hawaii in 1935 and trial flights across the Atlantic in 1937.
    In the late 1930s Sikorsky once again turned his attention to helicopters, and on 14 September 1939 his VS-300 made its first tentative hop, with Sikorsky at the controls. Many improvements were made and on 6 May 1941 Sikorsky made a record-breaking flight of over 1½ hours. The Sikorsky design of a single main lifting rotor combined with a small tail rotor to balance the torque effect has dominated helicopter design to this day. Sikorsky produced a long series of outstanding helicopter designs which are in service throughout the world.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1960. Presidential Certificate of Merit 1948. Aeronautical Society Silver Medal 1949.
    Bibliography
    1971, "Sixty years in flying", Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society) (November) (interesting and amusing).
    1938, The Story of the Winged S., New York; 1967, rev. edn.
    Further Reading
    D.Cochrane et al., 1990, The Aviation Careers of Igor Sikorsky, Seattle.
    K.N.Finne, 1988, Igor Sikorsky: The Russian Years, ed. C.J.Bobrow and V.Hardisty, Shrewsbury; orig. pub. in Russian, 1930.
    F.J.Delear, 1969, Igor Sikorsky: His Three Careers in Aviation, New York.
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Sikorsky, Igor Ivanovich

  • 14 Giles, Francis

    [br]
    b. 1787 England
    d. 4 March 1847 England
    [br]
    English civil engineer engaged in canal, harbour and railway construction.
    [br]
    Trained as a surveyor in John Rennie's organization, Giles carried out surveys on behalf of Rennie before setting up in practice on his own. His earliest survey seems to have been on the line of the proposed Weald of Kent Canal in 1809. Then in 1811 he surveyed the proposed London \& Cambridge Canal linking Bishops Stortford on the Stort with Cambridge and with a branch to Shefford on the Ivel. In the same year he surveyed the line of the Wey \& Arun Junction Canal, and in 1816, in the same area, the Portsmouth \& Arundel Canal. In 1819 he carried out what is regarded as his first independent commission—the extension of the River Ivel Navigation from Biggleswade to Shefford. At this time he was helping John Rennie on the Aire \& Calder Navigation and continued there after Rennie's death in 1821. In 1825 he was engaged on plans for a London to Portsmouth Ship Canal and also on a suggested link between the Basingstoke and Kennet \& Avon Canals. Later, on behalf of Sir George Duckett, he was Engineer to the Hertford Union Canal, which was completed in 1830, and linked the Regent's Canal to the Lee Navigation. In 1833 he completed the extension of the Sankey Brook Navigation from Fiddler's Ferry to the Mersey at Widnes. One of his last canal works was a survey of the River Lee in 1844. Apart from his canal work, he was appointed Engineer to the Newcastle \& Carlisle Railway in 1829 and designed, among other works, the fine viaducts at Wetheral and Cor by. He was also, for a very short time, Engineer to the London \& Southampton Railway. Among other commissions, he was involved in harbour surveys and works at Dover, Rye, Holyhead, Dundee, Bridport and Dun Laoghaire (Kingstown). He was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1842 and succeeded Telford on the Exchequer Bill Loans Board.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    1848, Memoir 17, London: Institution of Civil Engineers, 9.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > Giles, Francis

  • 15 qualified

    adjective ((negative unqualified) having the necessary qualification(s) to do (something): a qualified engineer.) cualificado, capacitado
    1. titulado
    2. capacitado / cualificado
    tr['kwɒlɪfaɪd]
    1 (for job) capacitado,-a
    2 (with qualifications) titulado,-a
    ■ qualified nurse enfermero,-a titulado,-a
    3 (limited, modified) limitado,-a, restringido,-a
    qualified ['kwɑlə.faɪd] adj
    : competente, capacitado
    adj.
    • calificado, -a adj.
    • capacitado, -a adj.
    • competente adj.
    • diplomado, -a adj.
    • habilitado, -a adj.
    • modificado, -a adj.
    'kwɑːləfaɪd, 'kwɒlɪfaɪd
    1)
    a) ( trained) titulado

    a highly qualified candidate — un candidato muy preparado or con un excelente currículum

    to be qualified to + INF — tener* la titulación necesaria para + inf

    b) ( competent) (pred) capacitado

    to be qualified to + INF — estar* capacitado para + inf

    c) ( eligible) (pred)

    to be qualified to + INF — reunir* los requisitos necesarios para + inf

    2) ( limited) < acceptance> con reservas
    ['kwɒlɪfaɪd]
    1. ADJ
    1) (in subject) (having exam passes, certificates) titulado

    qualified ski instructors — instructores mpl de esquí titulados

    to be qualified to do sth — (having passed exams) estar titulado para hacer algo; (having right expertise) estar cualificado para hacer algo

    • he was by far the best qualified for the task — era con mucho el mejor cualificado para la tarea

    • a group of highly qualified young people — un grupo de jóvenes altamente cualificados

    • a newly qualified accountant — un contable recién licenciado

    newly qualified drivers — conductores mpl que acaban de sacarse el carné

    • to be properly qualified — tener los títulos necesarios

    • it can be difficult to find suitably qualified staff — a veces es difícil encontrar personal adecuadamente cualificado

    2) (=equipped, capable)
    3) (=eligible)
    4) (=limited)

    • he gave it his qualified approval — lo aprobó con reservas

    • the committee gave a qualified endorsement to the plan — el comité aprobó el plan bajo ciertas condiciones

    • it was a qualified success — fue un éxito relativo

    • to give qualified support to sth — apoyar algo con reservas

    2.
    CPD

    qualified majority voting N — votación f de mayoría mínima

    qualified voter N — elector(a) m / f habilitado(-a)

    * * *
    ['kwɑːləfaɪd, 'kwɒlɪfaɪd]
    1)
    a) ( trained) titulado

    a highly qualified candidate — un candidato muy preparado or con un excelente currículum

    to be qualified to + INF — tener* la titulación necesaria para + inf

    b) ( competent) (pred) capacitado

    to be qualified to + INF — estar* capacitado para + inf

    c) ( eligible) (pred)

    to be qualified to + INF — reunir* los requisitos necesarios para + inf

    2) ( limited) < acceptance> con reservas

    English-spanish dictionary > qualified

  • 16 Hackworth, Timothy

    [br]
    b. 22 December 1786 Wylam, Northumberland, England
    d. 7 July 1850 Shildon, Co. Durham, England
    [br]
    English engineer, pioneer in construction and operation of steam locomotives.
    [br]
    Hackworth trained under his father, who was Foreman Blacksmith at Wylam colliery, and succeeded him upon his death in 1807. Between 1812 and 1816 he helped to build and maintain the Wylam locomotives under William Hedley. He then moved to Walbottle colliery, but during 1824 he took temporary charge of Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s works while George Stephenson was surveying the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway and Robert Stephenson was away in South America. In May 1825 Hackworth was appointed to the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR) "to have superintendence of the permanent (i.e. stationary) and locomotive engines". He established the workshops at Shildon, and when the railway opened in September he became in effect the first locomotive superintendent of a railway company. From experience of operating Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s locomotives he was able to make many detail improvements, notably spring safety valves. In 1827 he designed and built the locomotive Royal George, with six wheels coupled and inverted vertical cylinders driving the rear pair. From the pistons, drive was direct by way of piston rods and connecting rods to crankpins on the wheels, the first instance of the use of this layout on a locomotive. Royal George was the most powerful and satisfactory locomotive on the S \& DR to date and was the forerunner of Hackworth's type of heavy-goods locomotive, which was built until the mid-1840s.
    For the Rainhill Trials in 1829 Hackworth built and entered the locomotive Sans Pareil, which was subsequently used on the Bol ton \& Leigh Railway and is now in the Science Museum, London. A working replica was built for the 150th anniversary of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1980. In 1833 a further agreement with the S \& DR enabled Hackworth, while remaining in charge of their locomotives, to set up a locomotive and engineering works on his own account. Its products eventually included locomotives for the London, Brighton \& South Coast and York, Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, as well as some of the earliest locomotives exported to Russia and Canada. Hackworth's son, John Wesley Hackworth, was also an engineer and invented the radial valve gear for steam engines that bears his name.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.Young, 1975, Timothy Hackworth and the Locomotive, Shildon: Shildon "Stockton \& Darlington Railway" Silver Jubilee Committee; orig. pub. 1923, London (tends to emphasize Hackworth's achievements at the expense of other contemporary engineers).
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, London: Longmans (describes much of Hackworth's work and is more objective).
    E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, London: The Locomotive Publishing Co.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Hackworth, Timothy

  • 17 Hetzel, Max

    [br]
    b. 5 March 1921 Basle, Switzerland
    [br]
    Swiss electrical engineer who invented the tuning-fork watch.
    [br]
    Hetzel trained as an electrical engineer at the Federal Polytechnic in Zurich and worked for several years in the field of telecommunications before joining the Bulova Watch Company in 1950. At that time several companies were developing watches with electromagnetically maintained balances, but they represented very little advance on the mechanical watch and the mechanical switching mechanism was unreliable. In 1952 Hetzel started work on a much more radical design which was influenced by a transistorized tuning-fork oscillator that he had developed when he was working on telecommunications. Tuning forks, whose vibrations were maintained electromagnetically, had been used by scientists during the nineteenth century to measure small intervals of time, but Niaudet- Breguet appears to have been the first to use a tuning fork to control a clock. In 1866 he described a mechanically operated tuning-fork clock manufactured by the firm of Breguet, but it was not successful, possibly because the fork did not compensate for changes in temperature. The tuning fork only became a precision instrument during the 1920s, when elinvar forks were maintained in vibration by thermionic valve circuits. Their primary purpose was to act as frequency standards, but they might have been developed into precision clocks had not the quartz clock made its appearance very shortly afterwards. Hetzel's design was effectively a miniaturized version of these precision devices, with a transistor replacing the thermionic valve. The fork vibrated at a frequency of 360 cycles per second, and the hands were driven mechanically from the end of one of the tines. A prototype was working by 1954, and the watch went into production in 1960. It was sold under the tradename Accutron, with a guaranteed accuracy of one minute per month: this was a considerable improvement on the performance of the mechanical watch. However, the events of the 1920s were to repeat themselves, and by the end of the decade the Accutron was eclipsed by the introduction of quartz-crystal watches.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Neuchâtel Observatory Centenary Prize 1958. Swiss Society for Chronometry Gold Medal 1988.
    Bibliography
    "The history of the “Accutron” tuning fork watch", 1969, Swiss Watch \& Jewellery Journal 94:413–5.
    Further Reading
    R.Good, 1960, "The Accutron", Horological Journal 103:346–53 (for a detailed technical description).
    J.D.Weaver, 1982, Electrical \& Electronic Clocks \& Watches, London (provides a technical description of the tuning-fork watch in its historical context).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Hetzel, Max

  • 18 Roebling, John Augustus

    SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering
    [br]
    b. 12 July 1806 Muhlhausen, Prussia
    d. 22 July 1869 Brooklyn, New York, USA
    [br]
    German/American bridge engineer and builder.
    [br]
    The son of Polycarp Roebling, a tobacconist, he studied mathematics at Dr Unger's Pedagogium in Erfurt and went on to the Royal Polytechnic Institute in Berlin, from which he graduated in 1826 with honours in civil engineering. He spent the next three years working for the Prussian government on the construction of roads and bridges. With his brother and a group of friends, he emigrated to the United States, sailing from Bremen on 23 May 1831 and docking in Philadelphia eleven weeks later. They bought 7,000 acres (2,800 hectares) in Butler County, western Pennsylvania, and established a village, at first called Germania but later known as Saxonburg. Roebling gave up trying to establish himself as a farmer and found work for the state of Pennsylvania as Assistant Engineer on the Beaver River canal and others, then surveying a railroad route across the Allegheny Mountains. During his canal work, he noted the failings of the hemp ropes that were in use at that time, and recalled having read of wire ropes in a German journal; he built a rope-walk at his Saxonburg farm, bought a supply of iron wire and trained local labour in the method of wire twisting.
    At this time, many canals crossed rivers by means of aqueducts. In 1844, the Pennsylvania Canal aqueduct across the Allegheny River was due to be renewed, having become unsafe. Roebling made proposals which were accepted by the canal company: seven wooden spans of 162 ft (49 m) each were supported on either side by a 7 in. (18 cm) diameter cable, Roebling himself having to devise all the machinery required for the erection. He subsequently built four more suspension aqueducts, one of which was converted to a toll bridge and was still in use a century later.
    In 1849 he moved to Trenton, New Jersey, where he set up a new wire rope plant. In 1851 he started the construction (completed in 1855) of an 821 ft (250 m) long suspension railroad bridge across the Niagara River, 245 ft (75 m) above the rapids; each cable consisted of 3,640 wrought iron wires. A lower deck carried road traffic. He also constructed a bridge across the Ohio River between Cincinnati and Covington, a task which was much protracted due to the Civil War; this bridge was finally completed in 1866.
    Roebling's crowning achievement was to have been the design and construction of the bridge over the Hudson River between Brooklyn and Staten Island, New York, but he did not live to see its completion. It had a span of 1,595 ft (486 m), designed to bear a load of 18,700 tons (19,000 tonnes) with a headroom of 135 ft (41 m). The work of building had barely started when, at the Brooklyn wharf, a boat crushed Roebling's foot against the timbering and he died of tetanus three weeks later. His son, Washington Augustus Roebling, then took charge of this great work.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    D.B.Steinman and S.R.Watson, 1941, Bridges and their Builders, New York: Dover Books.
    D.McCullough, 1982, The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn Bridge, New York: Simon \& Schuster.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Roebling, John Augustus

  • 19 Wenham, Francis Herbert

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 1824 London, England
    d. 11 August 1908 Folkestone, England
    [br]
    English engineer, inventor and pioneer aerodynamicist who built the first wind tunnel.
    [br]
    Wenham trained as a marine engineer and later specialized in screw propellers and high-pressure engines. He had many interests. He took his steamboat to the Nile and assisted the photographer F.Frith to photograph Egyptian tombs by devising a series of mirrors to deflect sunlight into the dark recesses. He experimented with gas engines and produced a hot-air engine. Wenham was a leading, if controversial, figure in the Microscopical Society and a member of the Royal Photographic Society; he developed an enlarger.
    Wenham was interested in both mechanical and lighter-than-air flight. One of his friends was James Glaisher, a well-known balloonist who made many ascents to gather scientific information. When the (Royal) Aeronautical Society of Great Britain was founded in 1866, the Rules were drawn up by Wenham, Glaisher and the Honorary Secretary, F.W.Brearey. At the first meeting of the Society, on 27 June 1866, "On aerial locomotion and the laws by which heavy bodies impelled through the air are sustained" was read by Wenham. In his paper Wenham described his experiments with a whirling arm (used earlier by Cayley) to measure lift and drag on flat surfaces inclined at various angles of incidence. His studies of birds' wings and, in particular, their wing loading, showed that they derived most of their lift from the front portion, hence a long, thin wing was better than a short, wide one. He published illustrations of his glider designs covering his experiments of c. 1858–9. One of these had five slender wings one above the other, an idea later developed by Horatio Phillips. Wenham had some success with a model, but no real success with his full-size gliders.
    In 1871, Wenham and John Browning constructed the first wind tunnel designed for aeronautical research. It utilized a fan driven by a steam engine to propel the air and had a working section of 18 in. (116 cm). Wenham continued to play an important role in aeronautical matters for many years, including a lengthy exchange of ideas with Octave Chanute from 1892 onwards.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Honorary Member of the (Royal) Aeronautical Society.
    Bibliography
    Wenham published many reports and papers. These are listed, together with a reprint of his paper "Aerial locomotion", in the Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (August 1958).
    Further Reading
    Two papers by J.Laurence Pritchard, 1957, "The dawn of aerodynamics" Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (March); 1958, "Francis Herbert Wenham", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (August) (both papers describe Wenham and his work).
    J.E.Hodgson, 1924, History of Aeronautics in Great Britain, London.
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Wenham, Francis Herbert

  • 20 Hammond, Robert

    [br]
    b. 19 January 1850 Waltham Cross, England
    d. 5 August 1915 London, England
    [br]
    English engineer who established many of the earliest public electricity-supply systems in Britain.
    [br]
    After an education at Nunhead Grammar School, Hammond founded engineering businesses in Middlesbrough and London. Obtaining the first concession from the Anglo- American Brush Company for the exploitation of their system in Britain, he was instrumental in popularizing the Brush arc-lighting generator. Schemes using this system, which he established at Chesterfield, Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings in 1881–2, were the earliest public electricity-supply ventures in Britain. On the invention of the incandescent lamp, high-voltage Brush dynamos were employed to operate both arc and incandescent lamps. The limitations of this arrangement led Hammond to become the sole agent for the Ferranti alternator, introduced in 1882. Commencing practice as a consulting engineer, Hammond was responsible for the construction of many electricity works in the United Kingdom, of which the most notable were those at Leeds, Hackney (London) and Dublin, in addition to many abroad. Appreciating the need for trained engineers for the new electrical industry and profession then being created, in 1882 he established the Hammond Electrical Engineering College. Later, in association with Francis Ince, he founded Faraday House, a training school that pioneered the concept of "sandwich courses" for engineers. Between 1883 and 1903 he paid several visits to the United States to study developments in electric traction and was one of the advisers to the Postmaster General on the acquisition of the telephone companies.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1884, Electric Light in Our Homes, London (one of the first detailed accounts of electric lighting).
    1897, "Twenty five years" developments in central stations', Electrical Review 41:683–7 (surveys nineteenth-century public electricity supply).
    Further Reading
    F.W.Lipscomb, 1973, The Wise Men of the Wires, London (the story of Faraday House). B.Bowers, 1985, biography, in Dictionary of Business Biography, Vol. III, ed. J.Jeremy, London, pp. 21–2 (provides an account of Hammond's business ventures). J.D.Poulter, 1986, An Early History of 'Electricity Supply, London.
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Hammond, Robert

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